“Globally, 1 in 9 people still have no access to clean water. Water is a daily and crippling challenge. Without water you can’t grow food, you can’t build housing, you can’t stay healthy, you can’t stay in school and you can’t keep working. Today, hope is on hold in over half of the developing world’s primary schools without access to water and sanitation.

Children often bear the burden of walking miles each day to find water in streams and ponds, full of water-borne disease that is making them and their families sick. Illness and the time lost fetching it robs entire communities of their futures” (The Water Project, n.d.).

These alarming statistics come from an NGO dedicated to alleviating the water crisis that exists in many parts of the world. 

Peace Corps Training & Service

As Peace Corps Volunteers in Ecuador (my wife and I served together), we were first made aware of the importance of water safety during our 12 weeks of pre-service training in Quito. The chief culprit was parasites. We were cautioned never to drink water from juice vendors in the streets or to purchase juices made in restaurants or eateries that did not boil their water or use potable bottled water. The same advice applies to any leafy vegetables or unpeeled fruits like tomatoes and grapes; they are not to be eaten. Water from the tap was to be boiled according to instructions provided by the Peace Corps even when home with our familia anfitriona, meaning that we were all buying and drinking most of our water from bottles.

Does this mean we enjoyed a parasite-free life during our service in Cuenca, Ecuador? No. Both of us endured periods of parasite infection, something that is difficult to avoid no matter how careful we were. I recall one incident when my wife started getting sick in the late evening, so ill that I became genuinely alarmed. She became incoherent and could not even sit erect on the side of the bed. I had no idea what grave illness or condition she was experiencing. Following protocol, I called the Peace Corps Emergency Health Hotline (it must have been around 11 pm). After describing the symptoms to the doctor on-call, he told me she had parasites and to call an ambulance and have her transported immediately to the hospital for emergency treatment. Unable to reach an ambulance, I called a taxi. We somehow walked to the elevator from our apartment on the third floor and made our way to the waiting taxi for the fifteen-minute or so trip to Hospital Universitario del Rio in Cuenca, where Ana María was immediately attended to by emergency personnel and a drip line was started. The suspected diagnosis of parasites was confirmed, and one hour later, Ana María was sitting up, coherent, and ready to be discharged!

Through our detective work, we determined that Ana María had drunk water from a well while visiting a family up in the hills away from town, where most people have individual well water that is likely to be tainted. I had not consumed any water while there, so we were confident in our conclusion that this was the source of her infection, as the incident occurred the very next night. Typically, parasite infection is detected with a stool sample, and the standard treatment is a course of Nitazoxanida taken over three days. The other issue is when one household member becomes infected, all members are likely to become infected and must be co-treated. I should mention that we have also had to take this same Nitazoxanida treatment on several occasions in Medellín, Colombia where we currently reside, even though the country boasts of being one of the few South American countries to provide potable water to a majority of the population.

The Water Crisis

Although Cuenca, Ecuador, boasts of having potable water from the tap, we didn’t use this water for drinking or cooking without taking appropriate safeguard measures, such as boiling it. The CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) recommends a full rolling boil for one minute and cooling before use. Rolling boil facilitates communication and assures that an effective pasteurization temperature is reached to kill or inactivate waterborne pathogens.

As noted by Oxfam International, “every day in the world billions of people living in poverty continue to find problems accessing drinking water sources. Many spend numerous hours queuing or traveling long distances to obtain it, in addition to having to face the sanitary consequences of using contaminated water.

Millions of people get sick or die every day because they are forced to survive without this basic service. Diseases caused by the consumption of non-drinking water and the lack of basic sanitation systems kill more people every year than all forms of violence combined, including war, making it one of the most important health issues in the world” (Oxfam International, n.d.).

Access to potable water is crucial for public health, as consuming contaminated water can lead to waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and hepatitis A. Various processes are used to treat water and make it potable, including filtration, sedimentation, chlorination, and ultraviolet light or ozone. The goal is to remove unwanted substances and pathogens to make the water safe for consumption. Cities that can claim to provide potable water directly from the tap have typically invested heavily in water treatment facilities and infrastructure to maintain the purity and safety of their water supply.

In general, larger cities and urban centers in South America are more likely to have access to potable water because they have the infrastructure, such as water treatment plants and distribution systems, to process and supply water that meets safety standards for human consumption. Countries like Colombia have significantly improved access to potable water for their urban populations. However, in more remote areas, small towns, and rural villages, the infrastructure may not be as developed or non-existent, making it challenging to provide consistent access to water that meets safety standards. In these areas, water sources might be contaminated with pathogens or pollutants, and the lack of treatment facilities means that residents often rely on boiling water, using water purification tablets, or other methods to make water safe for drinking.

It’s important to note that even within countries that claim to have widespread access to potable water, there can be discrepancies in the quality and safety of the water supply, depending on local conditions, maintenance of the water supply system, and environmental factors. For example, water might be potable at its source or treatment facility. Still, aging infrastructure, leaks, or contamination in the distribution system could compromise water quality before it reaches the tap. Therefore, while Colombia and other countries in South America have indeed made progress in providing potable water to their populations, the situation can vary, and it’s always advisable for residents and visitors to verify the safety of the local water supply, especially in smaller towns and rural areas.

As mentioned above, we often relied upon bottled water to avoid drinking a tainted water source. It’s essential, however, to consider the environmental impact of relying on bottled water, as plastic bottles contribute to plastic waste and pollution. Using filtered water from safe tap sources and carrying water in reusable bottles is a more sustainable choice.

In cities like Cuenca and Medellín, where efforts have been made to provide potable tap water, residents might still choose bottled water for any of the abovementioned reasons. If you’re living in or visiting such areas, it could be beneficial to research the local water quality, possibly test the water yourself if you’re planning a long-term stay, and explore filtration systems as an alternative to bottled water to balance safety, taste, convenience, and environmental impact.

Using a water purifier is an excellent solution for ensuring the safety and improving the taste of your drinking water while minimizing the environmental impact associated with the consumption of bottled water. Water purifiers can remove a wide range of contaminants, including bacteria, viruses, parasites, heavy metals, chemical pollutants, and sediments, depending on the type and quality of your chosen filtration system. This is the solution we have chosen in Medellín, Colombia, and we now drink all of our water from a ceramically filtered water system. However, it is critical that users follow the manufacturer’s instructions for proper disposal of used filters to avoid any contamination of the environment.

What Can Be Done?

Designing a system to provide potable water to most of the population in countries like Ecuador, where parasites and other contaminants pose significant public health challenges, requires a comprehensive approach. This strategy would involve multiple stages, including source protection, water treatment, distribution system management, and public education. Here’s a broad outline of how such a system could be designed and implemented:

1. Source Water Protection

Assessment and Protection of Water Sources: Identify and protect clean water sources from agricultural runoff, industrial discharge, and sewage contamination. Such action might involve implementing stricter regulations and building infrastructure to prevent contamination.

2. Water Treatment Infrastructure

Centralized Treatment Plants: Invest in building or upgrading water treatment facilities equipped to remove parasites, bacteria, viruses, and chemical pollutants. This includes incorporating advanced treatment technologies like reverse osmosis, ultraviolet (UV) light disinfection, ozonation, and activated carbon filtration.

Decentralized Treatment Systems for Rural Areas: In remote areas, where it’s not feasible to connect to centralized systems, implement decentralized water treatment solutions such as community-based filtration systems, rainwater harvesting, and solar disinfection (SODIS).

3. Distribution System Upgrades

Improving and Maintaining Distribution Infrastructure: Ensure that water distribution systems are properly maintained and upgraded to prevent contamination post-treatment. This action includes replacing old and leaking pipes and implementing back-flow prevention systems.

4. Monitoring and Regulation

Regular Water Quality Testing: Establish rigorous water quality monitoring programs to promptly detect and address contamination issues. This also involves setting and enforcing strict water quality standards.

Public Reporting and Transparency: Make water quality information available to the public to build trust and ensure accountability.

5. Public Health Measures

Education and Awareness Campaigns: Educate the population about water safety, proper hygiene practices, and how to treat water at home if necessary.

Healthcare Access: Improve access to healthcare and treatment for waterborne diseases, including public health initiatives to prevent and treat parasite infections.

6. Research and Development

Invest in R&D: Encourage research into new water treatment technologies and cost-effective, efficient, and suitable methods for local conditions.

7. Community Involvement

Engage with Local Communities: Involve communities in planning and implementing water projects to ensure that solutions are tailored to meet local needs and foster community ownership over water safety.

Implementing such a comprehensive water safety system requires significant investment, political will, and collaboration between government bodies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the private sector, and local communities. Success in providing potable water widely also depends on sustained efforts, regular water quality assessment, and public health outcomes to adapt strategies as needed.

Applied Anthropology & Leveraging AI

In a follow-up post, I plan to outline a proposal for an international service project that could be undertaken by an applied anthropology class whereby students harness the power of AI to design a strategy for implementing potable water solutions in a small country like Ecuador or smaller pueblos within the country. Leveraging AI can offer insightful data analysis, pattern recognition, and simulation capabilities to support such a project.

References

Oxfam International. (n.d.). Agua y servicios de saneamiento. Retrieved March 17, 2024, from https://www.oxfam.org/es/que-hacemos/temas/agua-y-servicios-de-saneamiento

The Water Project. (n.d.). *Why water? The water crisis*. Retrieved March 17, 2024, from https://thewaterproject.org/why-water/water-crisis

Resources

Miller, J. (2021). Undergraduate student led research: An applied anthropology course as a community-based research firm. Teaching Anthropology, 10(3), 14-20. https://doi.org/10.22582/TA.V11I3.581

World Health Organization. (n.d.). Water Sanitation and Health. Retrieved March 14, 2024, from https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/water-sanitation-and-health

Water Focused NGOs

charity: water. (n.d.). Retrieved March 17, 2024, from https://www.charitywater.org

Oxfam International. (n.d.). Retrieved March 17, 2024, from https://www.oxfam.org/es

The Water Project. (n.d.). Retrieved March 17, 2024, from https://thewaterproject.org

WASH Alliance International. (n.d.). Retrieved March 17, 2024, from https://wash-alliance.org

Water.org. (n.d.). Retrieved March 17, 2024, from https://water.org

WaterAid. (n.d.). Retrieved March 17, 2024, from https://www.wateraid.org/us/

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